The principle of flame photometer is based on the measurement of the emitted light intensity when a metal is introduced into the flame. The wavelength of the colour gives information about the element and the colour of the flame gives information about the amount of the element present in the sample.

Champion, Pellet, and Grenier

Flame photometer is an analytical instrument used in clinical laboratories for determining of sodium, potassium, lithium and calcium ions in body fluids

Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) is an analytical technique used to determine how much of certain elements are in a sample. The ICP-OES principle uses the fact that atoms and ions can absorb energy to move electrons from the ground state to an excited state.

Eugen Badara

ICP (Inductively Coupled Plasma) Spectroscopy is an analytical technique used to measure and identify elements within a sample matrix based on the ionization of the elements within the sample.

Amino acid analysis is a technique based on ion exchange liquid chromatography, used in a wide range of application areas to provide qualitative and quantitative compositional analysis. The basic principle of operation is the continuous flow chromatography procedure developed by Spackman, Moore and Stein in 1958.

Spackman, Moore and Stein

Amino acid analyser is an analytical instrument to analyse the amino acids in body fluids such as urine, serum, and blood and in food samples. The measurement of amino acids is an essential element of physiological and nutritional studies and for monitoring the growth of cells in cultures

This method is based on the principle that single-stranded DNA molecules that differ in length by just a single nucleotide can be separated from one another using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, described earlier. One dideoxynucleotide, either ddG, ddA, ddC, or ddT.

Allan Maxam and Walter Gilbert

Sequence analysis is a term that comprehensively represents computational analysis of a DNA, RNA or peptide sequence, to extract knowledge about its properties, biological function, structure and evolution.

It is based on the principle that radiation is absorbed and scattered as it passes through an object. If there are variations in thickness or density (e.g. due to defects) in an object, more or less radiation passes through and affects the film exposure. Flaws show up on the film, usually as dark areas.

Max von Laue

X-Ray diffraction analysis (XRD) is a non-destructive technique that provides detailed information about the crystallographic structure, chemical composition, and physical properties of a material

AAS is an analytical technique used to determine how much of certain elements are in a sample. It uses the principle that atoms (and ions) can absorb light at a specific, unique wavelength. When this specific wavelength of light is provided, the energy (light) is absorbed by the atom.

Alan Walsh

AAS is an analytical technique used to determine how much of certain elements are in a sample. It uses the principle that atoms (and ions) can absorb light at a specific, unique wavelength. When this specific wavelength of light is provided, the energy (light) is absorbed by the atom.

A mixture will separate into individual substances when heated. The heated gases are carried through a column with an inert gas (such as helium). As the separated substances emerge from the column opening, they flow into the MS.

Robert Emmet Finnigan

Analysis begins with the gas chromatograph, where the sample is effectively vaporized into the gas phase and separated into its various components using a capillary column coated with a stationary (liquid or solid) phase.

Strong acid helps in the digestion of food so that it releases nitrogen which can be determined by a suitable titration technique.

Johann Kjeldahl

Used to routinely measure the crude protein content of foods.

The underlying principle of AFM is that this nanoscale tip is attached to a small cantilever which forms a spring. As the tip contacts the surface, the cantilever bends, and the bending is detected using a laser diode and a split photodetector. This bending is indicative of the tip-sample interaction force.

Binnig, Quate, and Gerber

Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) analysis provides images with near-atomic resolution for measuring surface topography. AFM is also referred to as Scanning probe microscopy. Atomic Force Microscopy is capable of quantifying surface roughness of samples down to the angstrom-scale.

An electron source usually named as the “Gun” produces a stream of electrons which is accelerated towards the specimen using a positive electrical potential. This stream is then focused using metal apertures and magnetic lenses called “condenser lenses” into a thin, focused, monochromatic beam.

Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll

HRTEM is an imaging mode of the TEM that allows the imaging of the crystallographic structure of a sample at an atomic scale.